A MINIMUM  SET  OF  TENTATIVE  PHYSICAL 
STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL 
AGE 


By  G.  B.  Affleck,  Professor  of  Hygiene,  International  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
College,  Springfield,  Mass. 


Introduction 

It  is  a function  of  scientific  procedure  in  any  recognized  field 
of  human  endeavor,  not  only  to  secure  and  verify  accurate 
information,  but  also  to  determine  the  significance  and  rela- 
tionships of  ascertained  facts ; and,  for  purposes  of  application, 
to  standardize  both  the  facts  themselves  and  the  methods  of 
their  use. 

Education,  especially  since  it  has  become  so  little  a per- 
quisite of  the  home  and  increasingly  a duty  of  the  state,  has 
felt  the  influence  of  material  and  commercial  standards,  and  has 
realized  the  need  for  similar  systematized  methods  that  the 
thousands  of  children  in  the  public  schools  might  be  “ handled  ” 
with  as  little  waste  and  friction  as  possible.  The  four-fold 
division  advocated  by  Commenius  has  been  somewhat  modified 
into  the  kindergarten,  elementary,  secondary  and  higher  sys- 
tems, a device  both  rational  and  expedient.  Within  each  of 
these  larger  groups  come  the  finer  divisions  into 'years,  grades, 
terms,  semesters,  quarters,  etc.,  which  represent  a still  finer 
classification  of  students  into  groups  of  somewhat  uniform  ac- 
complishment if  not  of  ability.  It  must  in  fairness  be  admitted 
that  this  very  standardization  in  education  has  not  in  all  cases 
proved  of  unmixed  blessing  or  advantage.  In  many  individual 
experiences  gross  injustice  has  been  done  because  of  the  in- 
flexibility of  the  “ system/’  The  seriousness  of  this  defect  is 
being  increasingly  recognized,  however,  and  steps  toward  its 
reduction,  or  may  one  venture  to  hope,  its  elimination  are  be- 
ing considered  and  actually  introduced. 

One  of  the  most  outstanding  defects  in  educational  pro- 
cedure is  the  same  in  general  as  the  criticism  levelled  against 
standardization  in  industry,  viz.,  the  individual  human  is  not 
given  due  consideration.  The  attendant  is  not  a part  of  the 
machine,  but  a human  being  with  hopes  and  fears,  likes  and 
dislikes,  ambitions  and  regrets,  who  is  not  belted  to  the  counter- 
shaft but  whose  power  and  motive  comes  from  within.  Nor 


325  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 

can  the  pupil  be  regarded  as  so  much  raw  material  to  be 
crowded  through  the  educational  machine  in  the  hope  of  turn- 
ing out  a uniform  product,  up  to  “ standard.”  Too  often  the 
attempt  is  made  to  force  the  student  to  conform  to  the  schedule 
and  program  of  the  system,  whereas  the  democratic  ideal  de- 
mands that  the  procedure  be  adapted  to  the  pupil,  that  each 
be  supplied  with  the  opportunity,  methods  and  materials  best 
calculated  to  develop  individual  superiority  subject  only  to  limi- 
tations in  ability.  This,  of  course,  presupposes  that  the  actual 
conditions,  powers  and  needs  of  each  pupil  be  ascertained. 

One  way  in  which  the  correction  of  a too  fixed  and  wrongly 
based  standardization  is  being  sought  is  by  the  recognition 
that  grouping  by  the  age  or  time  basis  is  unsatisfactory  and 
fails  to  give  homogeneity  within  any  of  the  present  age  or  grade 
groups.  The  direction  in  which  greatest  progress  has  been 
made  is  that  of  attempting  to  ascertain  concerning  any  indi- 
vidual pupil  about  whom  a question  as  to  standing  may  be 
raised,  not  the  chronological  age,  not  the  grade  standing,  but 
rather  the  mental  age  or  ability.  This  is  based  almost  exclu- 
sively upon  a variety  of  tests  of  intelligence,  since  from  the 
very  nature  of  mentality,  intelligence  is  the  factor  which  most 
readily  lends  itself  to  measurement  by  objective  standards. 

Another  factor  concerned  with  adjustment  of  the  present 
unsatisfactory  system  of  grading  by  chronological  age  or  length 
of  time  in  school  is  that  of  physical  development.  This  is 
important  both  in  its  relation  to  mentality  and  on  its  own 
account. 

The  relationship  between  physique  and  mentality  is  one  upon 
which  great  differences  of  opinion  are  still  held.  One  can 
find  experimental  data  supporting  practically  any  attitude 
which  may  be  suggseted. 

Thus  Gilbert(58,  p.  39),  Bagley(6,  p.  205)  and  West(141) 
found  little  or  no,  or  in  some  cases  even  negative  correlation 
between  bodily  development  and  mental  ability.  Burgerstein 
(29,  p.  38)  and  others  have  criticized  the  above  finding  on  the 
basis  that  mentality  was  judged  not  by  the  standing  of  the 
pupils  but  by  the  estimates  of  the  teachers. 

On  the  other  hand  Pearson (104,  p.  106),  Porter (109,  p.168), 
Roberts ( 1 16,  p.  359),  MacDonald(90,  p.  1027),  Smedley(127), 
Zirkle(149,  p.  9),  Pyle(112,  p.  39),  Boas(19),  DeBusk(48,  p. 
90),  Burgerstein (29,  p.  39),  Crampton(44),  Hogue(72),  Bald- 
win (7,  p.  82)  and  Arnold(2,  p.  36)  are  among  those  who  are 
satisfied  that  a positive  and  close  correlation  exists. 

The  general  practice  is  to  begin  the  formal  education  of 
children  at  some  stated  age — in  most  countries  at  6 years — 
but  factors  other  than  and  more  significant  than  chronological 


PHYSICAL  STANDARDSFOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  326 


* 


i 


age  are  beginning  to  be  considered.  To  some  of  these,  repre- 
senting physical  development,  attention  is  called  in  the  follow- 
ing pages. 

Methods  of  judging  success  or  progress  in  school  life  have 
been  too  largely  based  upon  knowledge  of  subjects  included  in 
the  prescribed  curriculum,  but  with  the  new  emphasis  upon 
health,  the  condition  of  the  pupil  must  be  given  prominent  if 
not  foremost  consideration.  There  seems  to  be  good  evidence 
that  at  least  20%  of  the  public  school  pupils  are  undernourished, 
and  a larger  proportion  have  physical  defects  the  great  major- 
ity of  which  are  remedial.  Military  data  indicate  that  many 
of  the  disqualifying  defects  might  have  been  prevented  or 
cured  during  school  life. 

It  is  well  recognized  that  no  single  factor  such  as  stature, 
weight,  eruption  of  permanent  teeth,  development  or  organiza- 
tion of  any  muscle  group,  presence  or  absence  of  any  sec- 
ondary sexual  characteristics,  or  in  fact  any  known  aspect  of 
an  individual  may,  by  itself,  be  accepted  as  an  infallible  index 
of  physiological  development.  Allowance  for  individual  varia- 
tions must  be  made  no  matter  what  test  is  being  applied,  but 
when  such  variations  depart  sufficiently  from  the  selected 
standards,  and  especially  when  such  variations  in  several  tests 
are  in  the  same  direction  from  the  standards,  there  is  rather 
satisfactory  evidence  of  abnormality,  which  may  be  either 
precocity  or  retardation. 

Thus,  should  a pupil  be  found  who  shows  consistently  light 
weight  for  his  age  or  height,  retarded  eruption  of  teeth,  weak 
forearm  muscles  and  poor  coordinating  power  there  is  a 
concurrence  of  evidence  of  physiological  subnormality,  which 
surely  deserves  recognition  in  plans  for  that  pupil’s  health 
and  progress  in  school  and  home. 

It  is  not  assumed  that  each  pupil’s  increase  in  any  given  meas- 
ure will  show  the  same  regular  upward  movement  as  is  indi- 
cated in  the  tables  or  standard ; yet  it  is  believed  that  in  case  of 
normal  development  each  child  would  not  differ  widely  from 
the  corresponding  figures.  So,  wherever  possible  from  the 
original  data,  normal  deviation  has  been  computed  giving  the 
zones  within  which  these  deviations  might  be  expected  to  fall. 
The  practice  is  to  regard  any  departure  beyond  these  limits  as 
deserving  of  special  attention,  especially  should  such  deviation 
be  in  the  direction  of  subnormality. 

The  actual  time  of  the  appearance  or  maturing  of  any  change 
or  quality  in  a complex  organism  such  as  the  human  body,  is 
not  referable  to  any  mere  temporal  reckoning  of  the  length  of 
life,  but  is  essentially  one  of  development.  So  it  is  quite  in 
accord  with  expectation  that  there  cannot  be  any  definitely 


788023 


327  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 


marked  “ time  line”  but  rather  a “time  zone  ” within  which  any 
physiological  transition  may  be  expected  to  manifest  itself. 
Boas (17,  p.  187)  has  phrased  this  fact  as  follows: 

“ The  range  of  individual  differences  may  be  indicated  by  those  ages 
within  the  limits  of  which  one-half  of  all  the  individuals  observed 
attain  a certain  physiological  development.” 

or,  as  Boas  has  also  summarized  variability : 

“ When  we  consider  children  of  a certain  age  we  may  say  that  they 
will  not  all  be  in  the  same  stage  of  development.  Some  will  have 
reached  a point  just  corresponding  to  their  age,  while  others  will  be  a 
little  behind,  and  still  others  in  advance  of  their  age.  We  may  assume 
that  the  difference  between  the  stage  of  their  development  and  that 
belonging  to  their  exact  age  is  due  to  accidental  causes,  so  that  just  as 
many  will  be  less  developed  as  further  developed  than  the  average 
child  of  a particular  age.” 

Agreeable  to  the  principle  enunciated  above,  the  normal 
range  of  individual  variations  of  a given  age,  for  any  single 
test,  may  be  regarded  as  those  values  within  which  come  the 
attainment  of  one-half  of  those  observed.  In  practice  this  may 
be  calculated  by  computing  the  median,  middle  value,  a 50% 
line  for  the  norm,  the  limits  of  normal  variation  will  then  be 
those  values  representing  the  middle  point  between  this  median 
value  and  the  limits  of  the  series  either  way,  i.  e.,  of  the  25% 
and  the  75%  lines. 

As  in  the  case  of  mental  age,  certain  milestones  have  been 
determined  empirically  as  standards  by  which  this  physical 
progress  may  be  judged. 

Structure  and  function  in  the  human  body  are  so  intimately 
interrelated  that  they  should  be  separated  only  in  thought  and 
for  purposes  of  convenience  in  treatment.  The  more  important 
is  function,  but  this  is  often  difficult  or  impossible  to  test 
mechanically,  and  moreover,  is  frequently  correlated  with  or 
based  upon  structures  which  are  visible  or  superficial  and  so 
subject  to  examination,  measurement,  comparison,  etc.  In 
some  cases  structures  are  significant  in  themselves,  e.  g.,  the 
teeth,  but  in  others  they  are  but  the  physical  basis  or  outward 
manifestation  of  functions  which  are  in  consequence  judged 
and  estimated  on  the  basis  of  their  associated  structures,  e.  g., 
pubescence.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  certain  powers  or 
functions  which  may  be  measured  as  such,  without  prime  atten- 
tion to  the  structures  involved  which  may  condition  their  func- 
tional efficience,  e.  g.,  lung  capacity  or  strength  of  grip. 

With  the  primacy  of  function  over  structure  definitely  in 
mind,  it  is  possible  as  a matter  of  classification  to  group  the 
physical  tests  or  examinations  into  two  divisions,  viz. : 


PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  328 

1.  Structural  or  Anatomical,  those  giving  evidence  of,  e.  g., 
size  (height),  mass  (weight),  number  (teeth),  significant  ex- 
ternal signs  (pubic  hair). 

2.  Functional  or  Physiological,  those  which  test  power  directly 
in  such  particulars  as,  e.  g.,  strength  (forearm  grip),  respira- 
tory power  (lung  capacity),  muscular  control  (tapping). 

Of  the  two  foregoing  groups  of  physical  tests  only  a limited 
number  are  admittedly  suitable  for  use  in  connection  with 
public  school  education.  The  basis  of  selection  of  the  tests 
advocated  herein  has  been  to  include  those  which  come  within 
the  following  requirements : 

1.  They  must  be  of  interest  and  value  from  the  standpoint  of 
education  and  hygiene.  This  will  eliminate  from  the  accepted 
list  many  measurements  which  may  have  a high  anthropological 
significance,  e.  g.,  cephalic  index,  facial  angle,  breadth  of  hand, 
color  of  eyes,  etc. 

2.  They  must  be  practicable  from  the  standpoint  of  condi- 
tions existing  or  likely  to  exist  in  public  school  systems.  This 
means  in  the  main  that  the  accepted  tests  be  simple  so  as  to 
require  a minimum  of  skill,  in  taking  and  of  expense  by  way  of 
equipment,  and  that  they  do  not  make  too  serious  a demand 
upon  the  time  of  teachers  or  pupils.  In  the  present  stage  of 
conventional  modesty  there  must  be  recognized  certain  limita- 
tions in  the  extent  to  which  the  exposure  of  the  person  of  the 
pupils  will  be  acceptable  to  parents  or  guardians. 

It  should  be  distinctly  understood  that  the  physical  tests 
advocated  may  very  properly  and  with  advantage  be  taken  as 
a part  of  the  medical  examination  of  the  pupils,  but  must  not 
in  any  sense  be  regarded  as  a substitute  for  the  complete  ex- 
amination, which  involves  many  important  considerations  not 
intended  to  be  included  in  the  brief  list  advocated. 

In  the  standards  submitted,  which  are  based  upon  the  best 
figures  available  and  are  computed  by  the  “ generalizing  ” 
method,  the  age  represents  that  of  the  last  birthday. 

It  must  be  reemphasized,  however,  that  both  the  values 
assigned  as  norms  and  those  limiting  normality  must  be  re- 
garded as  tentative.  So,  in  case  a child  shows  extreme  varia- 
tion, i.  e.,  beyond  the  limits  of  normality  as  shown  by  the  stand- 
ard, in  some  detail  but  is  within  the  limits  in  all  other  particu- 
lars, the  question  may  very  properly  be  raised  as  to  whether 
normal  variation  in  the  detail  concerned  may  not  be  wider 
than  the  figures  thus  far  available  have  indicated.  It  is  only 
by  repeated  checking  of  temporary  standards  against  many 
further  actual  measurements  that  values  deserving  of  final 
approval  may  be  secured. 


329  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 


The  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  make  selections  from  the 
widely  scattered  and  varying  data  derived  from  relevant  in- 
vestigations, and  from  these  to  attempt  to  establish  a minimum 
list  of  tentative  standards  for  physical  growth  and  development 
in  the  various  ages  of  school  life,  approximately  the  ages  6 to 
16.  It  is  hoped  that  such  standards  may  prove  of  practical 
value  to  parents,  teachers,  physical  directors,  school  nurses, 
and  examining  physicians ; that  they  may  stimulate  interest  in 
the  subject;  and  encourage  cooperation  in  further  investiga- 
tions and  experiments  with  a view  to  modifying  and  correcting 
these  tentative  standards,  of  rejecting  those  which  may  prove 
impracticable,  and  of  adding  others  which  may  appear  sig- 
nificant. 

Height 

Skeletal  growth  as  measured  by  height,  apart  from  the  varia- 
tions due  to  posture,  is  virtually  a bone  measurement  and 
appears  to  be  almost  entirely  independent  of  unfavorable  cir- 
cumstances such  as  malnutrition.  Among  the  studies  bearing 
upon  this  are  those  of  Jackson(75,  p.  153)  who  finds  that 
young  albino  rats  held  at  constant  body  weight  for  considerable 
periods  by  under  feeding  show  a normal  skeletal  growth  accom- 
panied by  a striking  failure  of  the  musculature  to  increase, 
which  usually  at  the  ages  concerned  is  making  rapid  gains. 
This  skeletal  increase  during  constant  body  weight  appears  to 
involve  ligaments  as  well  as  cartillages  and  bones,  and  tends 
to  proceed  along  the  lines  of  normal  development  as  indicated 
by  decrease  in  water  content  and  by  the  formation  and  union 
of  various  epiphyses. 

Hall (62,  Vol.  1,  p.  19),  after  reviewing  the  work  of  many 
investigators,  states : 

“ Of  all  single  measurements,  height  is  the  most  valuable.  It  is 
easily  taken,  is  relatively  constant,  and  is  not  liable  to  much  fluctua- 
tion. Along  with  weight  it  is  the  truest  expression  of  the  energy  of 
growth,  the  best  index  of  health,  and  gives  a datum  from  which  by 
the  use  of  current  norms  and  standards,  many  other  data  can  be  ap- 
proximately inferred.  It  is,  moreover,  the  most  distinctly  human 
dimension  as  man  alone  has  attained  a fully  erect  attitude.” 

Rusk (123,  p.  25)  is  authority  for  another  statement  of  a 
similar  nature,  claiming  that  of  the  various  bodily  measure- 
ments, height  most  faithfully  indicates  general  physical  de- 
velopment, being  less  dependent  than  weight  upon  variable 
individual  differences.  Height  measurement  indicates  that 
from  6 to  9 years  is  a period  of  uniform  and  rapid  development 
and  that  at  nine  irregularities  begin  to  appear. 


PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  330 


“ There  is  at  this  age  a retardation  with  girls,  and  with  boys  a more 
decided  retardation  occurs  at  11  years  of  age.  An  acceleration  of 
growth  acccompanies  the  pubertal  change,  attaining  its  maximum  with 
girls  at  13  and  with  boys  at  15.  Girls  are  shorter  than  boys  except 
during  the  years  11  to  14  when  they  are  taller;  this  is  due  to  the 
earlier  onset  of  puberty  of  girls,  giving  them  an  accompanying  advan- 
tage during  these  years." 

Robertson  (117,  p.  552),  basing  his  conclusions  on  studies 
on  human  subjects,  concludes  : 

“ The  variability  in  stature  is  much  less  than  the  variability  in  weight 
from  which  we  may  infer  that  as  a criterion  of  abnormalty,  the  meas- 
ure of  stature  is  more  reliable  than  that  of  weight,  while  as  a sensitive 
indication  of  the  effects  of  environment  or  dietetic  fluctuations,  the 
measure  of  weight  is  to  be  preferred  to  that  of  stature.” 

By  all  means  the  most  extensive  and  representative  figures 
for  height  of  school  children  are  the  Boas-Burk  tables(31, 
p.  262),  which  are  derived  through  merging  by  approved 
mathematical  methods,  the  figures  of  Bowditch,  Porter,  Boas 
and  others,  and  include  the  measurements  of  45,151  boys  and 
43,298  girls  in  the  cities  of  Boston,  St.  Louis,  Milwaukee, 
Worcester  and  Oakland. 

As  was  noted  in  the  introduction,  it  is  essential,  in  order  to 
allow  for  individual  variations,  to  provide  a standard  which 
includes  a reasonable  range,  on  either  side  of  the  values  repre- 
senting the  average.  The  usual  method  of  calculating  this  is  by 
the  determination  of  the  quartiles,  the  25%  and  the  75%  lines, 
and  regarding  these  as  the  limits  of  normal  variation.  This 
has  been  done  for  boys  by  Hastings  (70),  and  since  his  norms, 
the  50%  line,  correspond  very  closely  with  the  Boas-Burk 
values,  they  may  be  considered  as  supplementing  the  above 
standard  tables. 


TABLE  I 

Height,  in  Centimeters,  Each  Age  6 to  16.  (Hastings) 
Boys  Girls 


Age 

Obs. 

25% 

50% 

75% 

Obs. 

50% 

6 

410 

107.00 

110.67 

114.34 

352 

107.16 

7 

544 

112.19 

115.69 

119.19 

514 

114.95 

8 

565 

117.17 

121.31 

124.85 

531 

120.16 

9 

546 

122.08 

125.86 

129.64 

534 

126.17 

10 

498 

126.79 

130.95 

135.11 

517 

131.29 

11 

660 

130.97 

134.90 

138.83 

522 

135.16 

12 

559 

135.61 

140.29 

144.97 

526 

142.03 

13 

515 

140.28 

145.09 

149.90 

534 

148.53 

14 

435 

145.29 

151.02 

156.75 

534 

153.17 

15 

324 

151.37 

158.18 

164.99 

459 

156.79 

16 

218 

158.26 

163.73 

169.20 

355 

157.93 

331  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 

The  data  for  the  completion  of  the  table  for  girls  is  not  at 
present  available. 

This  table  is  intended  to  act  as  a guide  in  determining  the 
height  development  of  a pupil.  Should  his  height  vary  from  the 
norm  (50%  value)  for  his  age,  he  may  still  be  within  normal 
limits  provided  he  does  not  fall  outside  the  extremes  (the  25% 
and  the  75%  values).  Should  he  vary  more  than  these,  how- 
ever, there  is  then  reason  to  consider  his  other  aspects  of  devel- 
opment and  find  the  reason  for  his  deviation  from  the  standard. 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  facts,  now  thoroughly  estab- 
lished, concerning  growth  in  height  is  that  it  is  rythmic  rather 
than  regular.  Data  have  been  collected  relative  to  daily,  sea- 
sonal and  development  as  well  as  annual  variations. 

For  recording  height,  the  regulation  instrument  is  the  stadi- 
ometer,  consisting  of  a horizontal  base  to  which  is  attached  a 
graduated  vertical  standard  bearing  at  right  angles  a sliding 
arm.  The  pupil,  with  shoes  removed  stands  on  the  base,  heels 
together,  knees  pressed  back,  chest  lifted,  head  pushed  upward, 
and  chin  slightly  drawn  in.  To  aid  in  attaining  a vertical  posi- 
tion the  pupil  may  be  requested  to  stand  so  that  his  heels,  sacral 
and  dorsal  spine,  and  back  of  head  are  touching  the  vertical 
rod.  In  the  absence  of  this  equipment,  the  heights  required 
may  be  indicated  on  any  convenient  vertical  wall  or,  better 
still,  projecting  corner  or  door  post.  A book  or  right-angled 
piece  of  cardboard  may  be  suitably  graduated  for  the  sliding 
arm  of  the  stadiometer. 

Some  observers  advocate  attempting  to  secure  the  normal  or 
habitual  standing  posture  of  the  pupil,  but  in  the  writer’s  ex- 
perience, much  more  uniform  results  are  obtained  by  having 
the  pupil  “ stand  tall  ” or  “ stretch  up  ” as  suggested  above. 
This  is  one  test  in  which  encouragement  of  the  pupil  to  do  his 
best  may  be  advised. 

Weight 

In  weight,  as  in  height,  fluctuation  rather  than  regularity  is 
found  to  obtain.  In  general  the  weight  development  follows 
that  in  height,  but  is  much  more  subject  to  influence  by  ex- 
ternal forces,  and  much  less  determined  by  heredity.  It  is  on 
account  of  this  fact  that  weight  is  so  frequently  accepted  as 
an  index  of  condition  by  both  physician  and  layman,  and  en- 
vironment including  work,  rest,  diet,  recreation,  etc.,  regulated 
to  produce  corrective  results.  According  to  Donoldson(52,  pp. 
49-50)  the  body  from  birth  to  maturity  increases  in  height 
about  3.37  fold,  but  the  weight  increases  20  fold  or  more. 

The  fact  that  weight  may  be  gained  or  lost  readily  renders 
it  all  the  more  valuable  as  an  index  of  the  immediate  response 


PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  332 


of  the  organism  to  its  environment,  as  well  as  an  indication  of 
its  functioning.  Trainers  and  coaches  depend  largely  upon  the 
daily  “ weighing  in  ” as  a guide  to  the  condition  of  their  men, 
the  commonly  accepted  standard  being  that,  after  the  prelimin- 
ary loss  of  weight  common  at  the  beginning  of  the  season,  the 
weight  loss  of  the  daily  “ work  out  ” should  be  recovered  within 
24  hours,  otherwise  the  candidate  is  approaching  “ edge  ” or 
“ staleness  ” and  should  have  his  daily  expenditure  of  energy 
reduced. 

As  in  the  case  of  height,  the  accepted  standard  for  weight 
is  the  Boas-Burk  table(31,  p.  263)  which  shows  the  average 
American  weight  mathematically  calculated  from  the  data  of 
about  68,000  children. 

Again  considering  the  importance  of  individual  variation, 
the  data  worked  out  by  Hastings (70)  offer  the  most  convenient 
reference.  In  case  of  weight  he  gives,  in  addition  to  the  devia- 
tions for  boys  of  different  ages,  the  data  from  which  those  for 
girls  may  be  approximated;  there  is  submitted  the  following 
table : 


TABLE  II 

Weight,  in  Kilos,  for  Each  Age  of  Each  Sex,  6 to  16.  (Hastings) 
Boys  Girls 


Age  Obs. 

25% 

50% 

75% 

Obs. 

25%  H 

50% 

75%  % 

6 

410 

18.06 

19.37 

20.68 

352 

17.62 

18.50 

19.38 

7 

544 

20.30 

21.30 

22.30 

514 

19.78 

20.70 

21.62 

8 

565 

21.28 

23.14 

25.00 

531 

21.22 

22.17 

23.14 

9 

546 

23.11 

25.07 

27.03 

534 

23.22 

24.90 

26.58 

10 

498 

25.74 

27.85 

29.96 

517 

25.61 

27.16 

28.71 

11 

660 

27.49 

29.86 

32.23 

522 

27.22 

29.00 

30.78 

12 

559 

30.14 

32.98 

35.14 

526 

31.26 

33.06 

34.86 

13 

515 

32.15 

35.60 

39.15 

534 

35.80 

37.94 

40.08 

14 

435 

35.00 

39.73 

44.46 

534 

39.47 

42.92 

46.37 

15 

324 

39.93 

46.95 

53.97 

459 

42.86 

46.71 

50.56 

16 

218 

47.60 

52.90 

58.20 

355 

46.09 

50.38 

53.91 

% Estimated. 

Weight  is  taken  on  platform,  anthropometric  scales  of  the 
Buffalo  or  Fairbanks  types,  either  of  which  may  be  graduated 
in  the  metric  or  English  units  or  in  both.  These  scales  are 
provided  with  two  or  three  bars  equipped  with  sliding,  non- 
removable weights  and  with  balance  adjustments.  Before  each 
series  of  weighings,  the  scales  should  be  balanced  so  the  indi- 
cator swings  freely  between  the  two  limiting  bars.  As  a matter 
of  convenience,  the  pupils  should  be  weighed  wearing  ordinary 
indoor  clothing  with  the  exception  of  shoes  which  should  be  re- 
moved. On  account  of  the  fluctuations  due  to  meals,  time  of 
day,  etc.,  record  should  be  made  of  the  hour  of  the  weighing. 


333  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 

Further  note  of  time  of  year,  recent  health  of  pupil,  and  the 
like  may  also  have  value. 

Height  and  Weight 

No  matter  how  favorable  may  be  the  inherited  tendencies 
of  a child,  its  environment  has  much  to  do  with  regard  to  the 
realization  of  its  potentialities.  Though  environment  cannot 
always  alter  the  limitations  set  by  inherited  factors,  it  may 
prevent  deteriorating  influences  from  making  very  serious  in- 
roads on  the  growing  individual  or  interfering  with  the  best 
attainment  of  his  developmental  possibilities. 

From  the  standpoint  of  hygiene,  the  most  vital  consideration 
of  the  child’s  life  is  nutrition.  This,  according  to  Manny (92 
p.  123) 

“ is  not  merely  a matter  of  food,  although  that  source  of  growth  and 
energy  is  the  central  problem.  Nutrition  serves  as  an  index  of  the 
result  of  the  many  strains  and  stresses  that  come  from  adenoids,  en- 
larged tonsils,  defective  eyesight,  and  other  effects  of  native  disability 
and  unhygienic  living.” 

The  standard  most  widely  used  for  judging  nutrition  is 
known  as  the  Dunfermline  scale.  It  recognizes  4 groups,  as 
follows : 

1.  “Excellent”  represents  the  nutrition  of  a healthy  child 
of  good  social  standing. 

2.  “ Good  ” is  applied  to  those  whose  nutritive  condition 
falls  just  short  of  “ Excellent.” 

3.  “ Requiring  supervision  ” describes  children  who  are  on 
the  borderline  of  serious  impairment. 

4 “ Requiring  medical  treatment  ” indicates  that  nutrition 
is  seriously  impaired. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  these  divisions  do  not  seem  to  be 
very  clearly  defined,  experience  with  the  scale  shows  a sur- 
prisingly small  variation  among  different  examiners  working 
on  the  same  group  of  children. 

Holt  (73)  has  considered  the  question  of  some  definite  and 
measurable  index  of  nutrition,  and  finds  that  weight  in  relation 
to  age  is  not  of  greatest  value,  but  that  weight  related  to 
height  is  most  significant.  According  to  him  the  weight-height 
index  would  fix  the  child’s  status  in  nutrition, while  annual 
increase  in  height  would  indicate  his  progress  in  growth,  a 
question  entirely  different  from  that  of  nutrition. 

The  above  conclusion  is  in  accord  with  the  suggestions  of 
many  investigators  who  have  made  similar  attempts  in  the 
past. 

Bowditch  in  1877(22,  p.  301)  called  attention  to  the  impor- 
tance of  ascertaining  the  relation  of  height  and  weight  in  grow- 
ing children,  which  might  be  expressed  as  a quotient. 


PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  334 

Stephenson  (128),  bases  results  upon  the  figures  of  Bow- 
ditch  for  American  and  Anthropological  Committee  of  the 
British  Association,  for  English  children.  He  has  worked  out  a 
series  of  tables  giving  the  standard  weight,  in  pounds,  for  each 
inch  in  height,  for  boys  and  girls  of  each  age  from  6 to  18 
years.  These  tables  bear  a resemblance  to  those  prepared  by 
Dr.  Thomas  D.  Wood,  published  and  so  widely  distributed  by 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  during  the  last  few 
years. 

The  noted  variations  in  the  height-weight  relation  and  in  the 
relative  development  of  different  parts  of  the  body,  at  each  age, 
has  raised  the  question  of  physical  “ types.” 

In  1910  De  Giovanni(50,  51)  published  the  results  of  his  in- 
vestigations on  proportions  and  types.  Montessori(97)  in  1913 
published  extensive  figures  concerning  human  proportions  and 
laid  great  emphasis  upon  the  relation  of  length  of  trunk  to  that 
of  limbs.  Bryant  (26,  27)  stressed  the  importance  of  a knowl- 
edge and  appreciation  of  the  proportions  of  the  trunk  in  rela- 
tion to  efficiency. 

Goldthwaite(60)  has  given  the  most  complete  description  of 
the  neutral,  the  carnivorous  or  “lean  ” type  and  the  herbivorous 
or  “ stout  ” type.  His  claim  is  that  on  the  basis  of  the  general 
proportions  of  the  trunk  may  be  inferred  many  other  signifi- 
cant details  of  structure  and  function,  such  as  length  of  intes- 
tine, shape  and  number  of  vertebrae  and  ribs,  shape  of  stomach 
and  appendix,  etc.  In  addition  to  these  non-visible  features  he 
shows  the  correlation  between  type,  and  quality  of  skin,  pilos- 
ity,  shape  of  feet,  and  other  important  organs.  But  most  im- 
portant of  all  is  the  demonstrated  relation  of  type  to  health  and 
disease,  to  occupation,  and  to  biological  principles  of  the 
development  of  the  race. 

Lewis  (85)  has  made  a study  of  adolescents  on  the  basis  of 
structural  types  and  finds  a decided  preponderance  of  the  car- 
nivorous or  “ lanky  ” type,  while  the  herbivorous  exceeds  the 
neutral  type  which  constitutes  only  about  12%  of  the  entire 
group  examined.  This  shows  a strong  tendency  towards  the 
decided  types  and  is  due,  Bryant  claims  (28),  to  diet,  the  key 
to  the  control  of  type  and  consequently  to  the  diseases  to  which 
each  type  is  liable. 

The  significance  of  these  types  from  the  standpoints  of 
health,  interests,  capabilities  and  education  is  doubtless  great, 
but  the  details  of  the  proportions  which  would  throw  an  in- 
dividual of  a given  sex  and  at  a given  age  out  of  the  neutral 
and  into  the  “ stout  ” or  the  “lean  ” groups  have  not  been  so 
determined  as  to  be  generally  accepted. 

Taylor (132)  has  grouped  boys  into  5 rather  than  3 types  and 
has  given  the  figures  distinguishing  the  groups  from  each  other. 


335  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 


Using  height  as  the  standard,  he  relates  other  measurements 
to  it  and  only  incidentally  compares  the  measurements  as  a 
group  with  age. 

Lowman(86,  pp.  693-5)  has  used  the  material  outlined  by 
Goldthwaite  and  added  from  his  own  findings,  giving  a popular 
and  significant  outline  of  types  and  their  features. 

Emerson  (54a),  as  the  result  of  his  nutrition  clinics  in  New 
York,  Boston  and  other  cities  is  satisfied  that  at  least  20% 
of  the  pupils  in  attendance  at  the  public  schools  are  under 
nourished.  In  order  to  offer  an  objective  standard  by  which 
nutrition  may  be  readily  judged,  he  has  published  a height- 
weight  table  and  has  given  the  variations  from  the  standard 
regarded  as  indicative  of  under  nourishment.  This  table  is 
adapted  from  the  figures  given  by  Holt(73)  for  the  younger 
children  and  from  the  Boas-Burk  tables  for  pupils  of  school 
age.  Since  the  present  interest  is  with  the  latter  group  only, 
his  table  is  quoted  in  part. 

TABLE  III 

Emerson’s  Nutrition  Standards 
Boys  Girls 


Height 

Inches 

Aver.  Wt. 
for 

Ht.  Lbs. 

7% 
Under 
Wt.  Lbs. 

10% 

Under 

Wt.  Lbs. 

Aver.  Wt. 
for 

Ht.  Ins. 

7 % 
Under 
Wt.  Lbs. 

10  % 
Under 
Wt.  Lbs. 

40 

38.1 

35.4 

34.3 

37.4 

34.8 

33.7 

41 

39.8 

37.0 

35.8 

39.2 

36.6 

35.3 

42 

41.7 

38.8 

37.5 

41.2 

28.3 

37.1 

43 

43.5 

40.5 

39.2 

43.1 

40.1 

38.8 

44 

45.4 

42.2 

40.9 

44.8 

41.7 

40.3 

45 

47.1 

43.8 

42.2 

46.3 

43.1 

41.7 

46 

49.5 

46.0 

44.6 

48.5 

54.1 

43.7 

47 

51.4 

47.8 

46.3 

50.9 

47.3 

45.8 

48 

53.0 

49.3 

47.7 

53.3 

49.6 

48.0 

49 

55.4 

51.5 

49.9 

55.3 

51.9 

50.2 

50 

59.6 

55.4 

53.6 

58.3 

54.2 

52.5 

51 

62.5 

58.1 

56.3 

61.1 

56.8 

55.0 

52 

65.8 

61.1 

59.2 

63.8 

59.3 

57.4 

53 

68.9 

64.1 

62.0 

66.8 

62.1 

60.1 

54 

72.0 

67.0 

64.8 

70.3 

65.4 

63.3 

55 

75.4 

70.1 

67.9 

74.5 

69.3 

67.1 

56 

79.2 

73.7 

71.3 

78.4 

72.9 

70.6 

57 

82.2 

77.0 

74.5 

82.5 

75.7 

74.3 

58 

87.0 

80.9 

78.3 

86.6 

80.5 

77.9 

59 

91.1 

84.7 

82.0 

91.1 

84.7 

82.0 

60 

95.2 

88.5 

85.7 

96.7 

89.9 

87.0 

61 

99.3 

92.3 

89.4 

102.5 

95.3 

92.2 

62 

103.8 

96.5 

93.4 

110.5 

102.7 

99.4 

63 

108.0 

100.4 

97.2 

118.0 

109.7 

106.2 

64 

114.7 

106.7 

103.2 

123.0 

114.4 

110.7 

65 

121.8 

113.3 

109.6 

130.0 

120.9 

117.0 

66 

127.8 

118.9 

115.0 

137.0 

127.4 

123.3 

67 

132.6 

123.3 

119.3 

143.0 

133.0 

128.7 

68 

138.9 

129.2 

125.0 

146.9 

136.6 

132.2 

PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  336 


In  discussing  the  above  table,  Emerson  states (54a)  that: 

“ All  children  who  are  habitually  as  much  as  seven  per  cent  under 
weight  for  their  height  are  malnourished.  This  degree  of  under  weight 
means  that  the  children  are  at  least  a whole  year  below  the  normal 
standard  which  they  ought  to  have  attained.  They  are  not  only  under 
weight,  but  under  their  normal  height  also.” 

Emerson  does  not  entirely  disregard  height  in  relation  to  age. 
A letter  from  his  clinic  says : 

“We  make  it  a rule  to  use  the  weight-height  ratio  for  the  purpose 
of  selecting  that  very  large  group  of  malnourished  children  most 
urgently  in  need  of  attention,  and  then  depend  upon  individual  diag- 
nosis to  identify  borderline  cases  not  reached  by  the  general  rule. 
Naturally,  any  child  who  is  clearly  below  the  height  and  weight  meas- 
urements usual  at  his  age,  receives  special  consideration,  even  though 
his  ratio  may  be  normal.  In  such  a case  an  actual  condition  of  good 
health  must  be  proved  before  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  he  is  doing  as 
well  as  is  possible  for  him  to  do.” 

This  latter  statement  is  important  from  the  fact  that  arrest 
of  height  growth  due  to  under  nutrition  is  rapidly  overcome 
when  such  stunted  children  are  placed  under  proper  conditions, 
for  they  soon  prove  that  they  have  a capacity  for  growth  in 
both  height  and  weight  not  heretofore  realized. 

Osborne  and  Mendel(100,  101,  102)  have  given  ample  ex- 
perimental evidence  of  the  remarkable  power  of  young  animals 
to  resume  growth,  at  an  accelerated  rate,  after  long-continued 
retardation  due  to  unfavorable  conditions,  e.  g.,  unsuitable 
diet. 

Retan  (114)  has  given  evidence,  in  graphic  form,  of  the  unre- 
liability of  using  weight  in  relation  to  age  as  a standard  of 
nutrition,  and  is  satisfied  that  the  weight-height  relation  affords 
a suitable  index. 

Teeth 

Among  the  reasons  for  special  attention  to  the  time  of  erup- 
tion of  permanent  teeth,  as  an  index  of  physical  development, 
maye  be  noted  the  following : 

1.  The  first  permanent  tooth  to  erupt  is  the  first  molar,  which 
is  the  sixth  tooth  from  the  middle  line  of  the  face,  and  makes 
its  appearance  normally  by  the  time  the  child  is  six  years  of 
age.  It  is,  in  consequence,  sometimes  called  the  six-year  molar, 
and,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  it  erupts  about  the  time  the 
child  enters  school,  it  is  a most  convenient  sign  post  of  physical 
development.  All  too  frequently,  this  tooth  is  regarded  by 
child,  teacher  and  parents  as  one  of  the  temporary  set,  and 
since  it  erupts  when  the  milk  teeth  are  about  to  be  shed,  its 


337  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 

life  is  supposed  to  be  of  but  short  duration,  and  in  consequence 
it  seldom  receives  the  attention  and  care  which  its  position  in 
the  arch  demands. 

The  statement  of  Angle(l,  p.  302)  is  that  in  function  and  in- 
fluence some  teeth  are  of  greater  importance  than  others,  the 
most  important  of  all  being  the  first  permanent  molars  for  the 
following  reasons : 

(1)  “They  are  the  largest  and  firmest  in  their  attachments. 

(2)  “ They  have  the  most  important  location  in  the  arches. 

(3)  “Their  length  determines  the  separation  of  jaws,  and  length 
of  bite,  thus  contributing  to  facial  proportions. 

(4)  “ They  are  first  in  position,  and  influence  other  tooth  positions. 

(5)  “They  are  most  constant  in  time  of  eruption,  and  in  the  as- 
sumption of  normal  positions.” 

2 Tooth  eruption  continues  more  or  less  regularly  through- 
out school  life,  thus  affording  a practically  constant  indication 
of  the  rate  of  physical  development  in  the  individual  pupil. 

3.  There  is  not  required  for  the  recording  of  the  eruption  of 
the  teeth  any  elaborate  equipment,  nor  is  there  great  likelihood 
of  error  because  of  personal  equation.  Certain  teeth  either 
are  or  are  not  present,  and  if  present  may  be  seen,  identified  and 
counted.  This  test  is  therefore  one  of  the  most  definite  of  any 
in  use  or  in  fact  conceivable. 

4.  The  teeth  have  a peculiar  relation  to  nutrition.  On  the 
one  hand  the  time  of  their  eruption,  their  shape,  condition,  etc., 
is  an  indication  of  the  pupil’s  nourishment  up  to  the  time  of 
examination ; and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  number,  condition  and 
arrangement  with  regard  to  occlusion  is  very  definitely  related 
to  food  mastication  and  consequently  to  subsequent  digestion 
and  assimilation.  This  latter  aspect  has  received  recent  em- 
phasis from  the  number  of  rejections  of  recruits  on  account 
of  failure  to  measure  up  to  the  Government  requirement  in  this 
particular. 

5.  There  seems  to  be  adequate  evidence  of  the  value  of  the 
age  at  which  teeth  erupt  as  a factor  indicating  development. 
Mackenzie (91,  pp.  255-65)  states  that  the  number  of  teeth 
present  at  any  given  age  is  of  prime  importance  as  a test  of 
development.  Bean (12,  p.  612),  concludes  that: 

“ the  teeth  are  more  convenient  and  more  exact  as  a means  of  deter- 
mining the  physiological  standard  than  stature  or  weight  or  growth  of 
bones  or  secondary  sexual  characteristics,  etc.,  and  they  may  be  of 
greater  value  than  any  other  means  that  can  be  utilized.” 

Beik(14,  p.  203),  after  careful  investigation,  is  entirely  satis- 
fied that: 


PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  338 


“ The  state  of  advancement  reached  in  dentition  is  a good  indication 
of  the  stage  of  progress  which  a child  has  reached  in  its  total  physical 
development.” 

Bean  (12,  p.  601)  has  prepared  a standard  table  for  norms  of 
teeth  eruption  of  American  children,  but  since  he  has  not 
offered  figures  indicating  normal  variability,  the  table  prepared 
by  Woodrow(145,  p.  103)  which  agrees  closely  with  Bean’s 
is  selected.  These  figures  are  based  mainly  on  the  work  of 
James  and  Pitts (76)  who  investigated  4,850  English  children 
of  school  age. 

TABLE  IV 

Showing  the  Ages  at  Which  50%,  25%,  and  75%  of  Children  Norm- 
ally Have  Erupted  the  Teeth  Indicated.  (Woodrow) 

Name  of  Tooth  Present  in  50%  Present  in  25%  Present  in  75% 
of  Children  of  Children  of  Children 


Lower  First  Molar 

6 Yrs.  0 Mos. 

5 Yrs.  6 Mos. 

6 Yrs.  6 Mos. 

Upper  First  Molar 

6 “ 

3 

5 

“ 9 

6 “ 

6 “ 

Lower  Median  Incisor . . 

6 “ 

6 

a 

6 

“ 0 

it 

7 “ 

0 “ 

Upper  Median  Incisor. . 

7 “ 

6 

a 

7 

“ 0 

a 

8 “ 

3 “ 

Lower  Lateral  Incisor . . 

7 “ 

6 

a 

7 

“ 0 

a 

8 “ 

6 “ 

Upper  Lateral  Incisor . . 

8 “ 

6 

a 

8 

“ 0 

9 “ 

3 “ 

Upper  First  Premolar. . . 

10  “ 

0 

a 

8 

“ 9 

a 

10  “ 

9 “ 

Lower  First  Premolar. . . 

10  “ 

6 

a 

9 

“ 6 

a 

11  “ 

9 “ 

Lower  Canines 

10  “ 

6 

a 

9 

“ 9 

a 

12  “ 

3 “ 

Upper  Second  Premolars  11  “ 

0 

a 

9 

“ 9 

“ 

12  “ 

0 “ 

Lower  Second  Premolars  11  “ 

6 

10 

“ 3 

12  “ 

6 “ 

Upper  Canines 

11  “ 

9 

a 

10 

“ 9 

a 

12  “ 

9 “ 

Lower  Second  Molars . . 

11  “ 

9 

tt 

10 

“ 9 

a 

14  " 

0 “ 

Upper  Second  Molars. . 

12  “ 

6 

a 

11 

“ 6 

14  “ 

3 “ 

Third  Molars 

14th 

to 

24th 

Year 


The  range  in  the  above  table  is  sufficiently  wide  to  allow 
not  only  for  variation  due  to  sex  but  also  for  those  arising  from 
other  normal  influences. 

Despite  the  fact  that  several  authorities,  of  whom  some  have 
been  quoted,  are  positive  as  to  the  uniformity  of  the  age  of 
tooth  eruption,  it  seems  necessary  to  add  that,  as  in  the  case  of 
other  developmental  aspects,  undue  emphasis  must  not  be 
placed  upon  this  single  index  by  itself.  So  many  are  the  fac- 
tors which  may  influence  the  time  of  eruption  that  a too  rigid 
application  of  this  one  standard,  without  relation  to  others, 
might  easily  result  in  entirely  erroneous  conclusions.  This 
is  particularly  true  with  regard  to  those  areas  of  the  dental 
arch  subject  to  the  greatest  variation,  viz.,  the  region  of  the 
upper  lateral  incisors,  the  lower  second  bicuspids,  and  the 
wisdom  teeth  or  third  molars. 


339  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 
Motor  Development 

One  of  the  most  significant  of  all  possible  tests  would  be  one 
showing  the  rate  of  progress  in  neuro-muscular  coordination. 
Experimenters  have  virtually  all  come  to  the  adoption  of  the 
speed  of  tapping  as  the  most  representative  of  the  practicable 
tests  of  motor  development.  It  is  known  that  at  birth  the  child 
has  control  of  but  a few  muscle  groups — those  connected  with 
sucking  and  grasping  being  the  conspicuous  exceptions.  With 
the  growth  and  elaboration  of  the  nervous  system  comes  that 
coordination  of  the  neuro-muscular  mechanism  so  well  traced 
by  Burk  (30). 

Hall(62,  p.  142)  regards  “the  greatest  number  of  taps  that 
can  be  made  in  a given  brief  time  interval  as  an  important 
determination  for  the  development  of  accessory  muscular  con- 
trol ” and  as  a “ very  important  measure  as  a factor  of  motor 
ability.” 

The  complete  laboratory  outfit  is  rather  elaborate,  consisting 
of  the  tapping  board,  50  x 10  cm.,  with  brass  plates  10  cm. 
square  on  either  end;  tapping  stylus  with  flexible  connecting 
wire;  kymograph  with  its  essential  accompaniments;  and  a 
stop  watch.  This  may  be  much  simplified  by  the  substitution 
of  an  electric  counter  which  will  record  the  number  of  taps 
as  accurately  as  the  kymograph. 

Franz,  however,  is  sponsor  for  a method  of  testing  motor 
development  which  does  not  involve  expenditure  for  equipment. 
He  explains  it  somewhat  as  follows  (56,  pp.  45-46)  : A very 
simple  and  inexpensive  method  of  testing  this  type  of  voluntary 
control  is  to  provide  the  pupil  with  paper  and  pencil,  and  have 
him  make  a series  of  dots  as  rapidly  as  possible  for  the  required 
interval  of  time.  The  time  selected  is  frequently  30  seconds 
and  may  be  kept  by  a stop  watch  or,  for  practical  purposes,  by 
a watch  or  clock  equipped  with  a hand  recording  seconds. 

The  technique  of  taking  the  test  is  simple.  Seat  the  pupil 
in  a chair  of  suitable  height  with  his  side  (right  then  left) 
towards  the  desk  or  table,  so  that  the  forearm  will  rest  com- 
fortably upon  the  support.  The  tapping  is  done  by  a movement 
from  the  wrist  with  the  pencil  held  vertically;  it  begins  and 
ends  on  signal  and  is  continued  for  30  seconds.  Record  is  made 
of  the  performance  of  the  right  hand,  then  of  the  left. 

Experimental  data  are  not  abundant  upon  which  to  base  even 
tentative  norms.  The  results  obtained  by  Smedley(127,  p.  41) 
and  by  Pyle  (113,  p.  25)  constitute  the  most  extensive  and  are 
given  below. 


PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  340 
TABLE  V 

Rate  of  Tapping,  30  Seconds,  Boys.  (Smedley  and  Pyle) 


Smedley 

Pyle 

Ages 

Obs. 

Right 

Left 

Obs. 

Right 

Left 

6 

62 

121 

107 

7 

61 

129 

111 

8 

31 

147 

ii7 

76 

136 

111 

9 

60 

151 

127 

76 

144 

123 

10 

47 

161 

132 

70 

152 

131 

11 

49 

169 

141 

84 

163 

136 

12 

44 

170 

145 

74 

168 

141 

13 

50 

184 

156 

82 

175 

150 

14 

40 

184 

155 

75 

177 

154 

15 

37 

191 

169 

85 

188 

166 

16 

21 

196 

170 

51 

190 

168 

TABLE  VI 

Rate  of  Tapping,  30 

Seconds,  Girls.  (Smedley  and 

Pyle) 

Smedley 

Pyle 

Ages 

Obs. 

Right 

Left 

Obs. 

Right 

Left 

6 

66 

121 

103 

7 

59 

132 

112 

8 

31 

i.46 

li7 

63 

135 

118 

9 

44 

149 

118 

70 

148 

128 

10 

48 

157 

129 

76 

154 

133 

11 

48 

169 

139 

75 

163 

141 

12 

50 

169 

140 

86 

169 

148 

13 

45 

178 

153 

93 

172 

151 

14 

67 

181 

157 

63 

183 

158 

15 

48 

181 

159 

94 

185 

159 

16 

50 

187 

167 

94 

187 

163 

Note. 

In 

Tables  13  and 

14  the  number  of 

cases  is  not 

exact  for 

Pyle's  observations,  since  he  had  not  always  the  same  number  for  each 
hand;  those  given  are  for  the  right  hand  test. 


In  comparing  the  figures  of  Smedley  and  Pyle  as  given  above 
it  will  be  noticed  that  Smedley  does  not  give  the  data  for  the 
ages  6 and  7 ; that  Smedley’s  figures  are  higher  than  Pyle’s 
except,  in  the  main,  those  for  girls  where  in  some  cases  Pyle’s 
results  are  greater;  and  that  the  number  of  cases  on  which 
Pyle’s  norms  are  based  is  greater  than  Smedley’s. 

Both  investigator’s,  however,  report  less  than  100  cases  in 
each  age  so  that  it  would  appear  that  these  norms  are  based 
on  data  insufficient  to  justify  their  final  acceptance.  Much 
further  work  should  be  done  in  this  test  not  only  that  norms 


341  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 

may  be  established  but  also  that  the  range  of  deviation  may 
be  secured  and  thus  the  zones  of  normality  determined. 

Lung  Capacity 

The  terms  lung  capacity,  breathing  capacity  and  vital  capa- 
city have  been  used  to  designate  the  volumetric  difference 
between  the  lung  content  at  forced  inspiration  and  at  forced  ex- 
piration. It  might  with  more  propriety  be  termed  differential 
lung  capacity  or  respiratory  capacity,  since  even  after  forced 
expiration,  the  lungs  are  by  no  means  collapsed  but  contain  a 
residuum  of  air  roughly  estimated  for  the  adult  at  1,640  cubic 
centimeters  (100  cubic  inches). 

This  test  is  of  exceptional  value  in  that  it  indicates  both 
development  and  functional  power.  Not  only  is  there  given  an 
idea  of  the  size  of  the  thoracic  cavity  but  more  important  still 
of  the  control  or  mobility  of  the  chest.  Chest  girth  is  some- 
times taken  as  an  index  of  lung  capacity.  Military  require- 
ments are  frequently  based  on  a stated  expansion  for  a given 
height.  This  means  that  the  difference  between  the  chest  girth 
fully  expanded  and  forcibly  deflated  must  measure  a certain 
number  of  inches  or  centimeters  for  each  respective  inch  or 
centimeter  of  total  stature. 

All  tape  and  caliper  chest  measures,  however,  are  partial 
in  that  they  cannot  record  the  enlargement  of  the  thorax  along 
the  vertical  axis,  produced  by  the  movement  of  the  diaphragm, 
the  chief  muscle  of  respiration.  These  external  measures  are 
of  great  significance  from  the  standpoint  of  diagnosis,  but  in- 
volve the  stripping  of  the  child  to  the  waist,  a procedure  not 
yet  common  except  in  medical  examinations. 

But  the  volumetric  displacement  recorded  by  the  wet  spirom- 
eter, includes  the  results  of  all  the  factors  contributing  to  the 
change  in  intra-thoracic  capacity,  and  in  consequence  from  the 
standpoint  of  a functional  test  is  much  superior  to  any  measure- 
ment which  may  be  made  upon  the  surface. 

In  making  this  test,  the  pupil  is  asked  to  inhale  as  deeply 
as  possible,  take  the  mouthpiece  in  his  mouth  and  exhale  stead- 
ily and  continuously  through  it  into  the  instrument,  forcing 
out  of  the  lungs  as  much  air  as  possible.  Record  the  reading 
of  the  indicator  at  the  highest  point  of  each  of  the  two  or 
three  trials  allowed  and  credit  the  pupil  with  the  highest  figure 
secured.  In  restoring  the  spirometer  to  its  initial  starting  posi- 
tion, care  should  be  taken  to  remove  the  stopper  and  to  press 
the  inverted  cylinder  down  steadily  but  slowly  to  its  original 
position,  replacing  the  stopper.  Pupils  should  be  advised  to 
grasp  the  mouth  piece  firmly  with  the  lips,  that  no  air  escape 
around  it  and  so  lower  the  record.  Exhalation  should  be 


PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  342 


steady  and  not  forced  except  during  the  latter  part.  Hygienic 
precautions  in  connection  with  assuring  a sanitary  condition 
of  the  mouth  pieces  demand  that  either  the  glass  mouth  pieces 
be  thoroughly  sterilized  after  use  or,  preferably,  that  wooden 
or  paper  mouth  pieces  be  provided  and  discarded  after  use  by 
one  pupil;  the  expense  is  negligible.  If  necessary,  pupils  may 
be  allowed  to  occlude  the  nostrils  by  pinching  the  nose  between 
thumb  and  finger. 

The  norms  and  deviations  from  the  standards  are  worked  out 
in  detail  for  boys  by  Hastings  who  also  gives  the  figures  from 
which  those  for  the  girls  may  be  estimated  approximately. 

TABLE  VII 


Lung  Capacity,  in  Cubic  Centimeters,  for  Each  Age  (Hastings) 


Boys 

Girls 

Age 

25% 

50% 

75% 

25%  # 

50% 

75%  # 

6 

560 

830 

1,000 

580 

710 

840 

7 

810 

990 

1,170 

710 

830 

950 

8 

950 

1,150 

1,350 

830 

990 

1,150 

9 

1,140 

1,230 

1,520 

980 

1,140 

1,300 

10 

1,250 

1,480 

1,520 

1,130 

1,270 

1,510 

11 

1,450 

1,660 

1,870 

1,140 

1,350 

1,560 

12 

1,610 

1,830 

2,050 

1,300 

1,540 

1,780 

13 

1,770 

2,030 

2,290 

1,560 

1,730 

1,900 

14 

1,950 

2,300 

2,650 

1,620 

1,850 

2,080 

15 

2,210 

2,640 

3,070 

1,720 

2,020 

2,300 

16 

2,640 

3,140 

3,640 

1,880 

2,140 

2,380 

Approximated 


Forearm  Strength 

The  finger  flexors  of  the  forearm,  those  used  in  closing  the 
fingers  as  in  giving  a grip,  are  probably  the  most  representative 
group  of  muscles  in  the  young  since  they  are  in  almost  constant 
use  in  the  routine  of  daily  life.  No  matter  at  what  employment 
or  amusemnet  one  may  be  engaged  there  is  necessarily  much 
holding,  handling,  grasping,  etc.,  which  brings  into  functional 
activity  this  muscle  group.  Moreover,  these  muscles  are  of  fair 
size,  thereby  giving  a much  more  reliable  index  of  muscular 
power  than  would  a smaller  group  such  as  the  flexors  of 
a single  finger  which  are  often  used  in  ergograph  tests.  Ac- 
cording to  Meyers (98)  the  child  is  born  with  an  automatic 
grasping  mechanism  which  “ goes  off  ” when  stimulus  is  ap- 
plied to  the  proper  place,  so  that  practice  in  co-ordinating  the 
muscles  involved  is  begun  much  earlier  than  in  others  produc- 
ing movements  of  equal  complexity.  The  actual  taking  of  the 
test  is  comparatively  simple,  and  with  the  adjustable  Smedley 
dynamometer  is  reasonably  accurate. 


343  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 


Measurement  in  millimeters,  is  first  taken  from  the  point 
where  the  pupil’s  thumb  joins  the  hand,  to  the  tips  of  the 
fingers.  The  manuometer  is  adjusted,  by  whirling  the  inner 
stirrup  until  the  scale  on  the  outer  stirrup  indicates  one-half 
the  distance  above  secured.  Record  this  distance  and  set  the 
clutch  to  prevent  twisting  of  the  inner  stirrup  during  the  test. 
Before  each  test  set  the  indicator  on  the  dial  at  zero.  Have  the 
pupil  exert  maximum  grip,  grasping  the  inner  stirrup  at  the 
centre  rather  than  toward  either  side.  See  that  no  part  of 
the  instrument  touches  any  object  other  than  the  hand  gripping 
it.  Test  the  hands  alternately,  right  and  left,  two  or  three  times 
each,  and  select  for  permanent  record  the  best  performance  for 
each  hand. 


TABLE  VIII 

Standards  of  Forearm  Strength  in  Kilos.  (Hastings) 

Boys 

Right  Hand  Left  Hand 


Age 

Obs. 

25% 

50% 

75% 

25% 

50% 

75% 

6 

410 

5.08 

6.98 

8.88 

3.90 

5.70 

7.50 

7 

544 

7.59 

9.18 

10.77 

6.62 

8.53 

10.44 

8 

565 

8.66 

10.63 

12.00 

7.99 

9.53 

11.07 

9 

546 

10.94 

13.14 

15.34 

9.83 

11.57 

13.71 

10 

498 

12.24 

14.74 

17.24 

11.73 

14.05 

16.39 

11 

660 

15.64 

18.02 

20.40 

13.81 

16.11 

18.41 

12 

559 

16.99 

19.68 

22.37 

15.54 

18.44 

21.34 

13 

515 

18.90 

22.59 

26.28 

17.76 

20.49 

23.22 

14 

435 

21.25 

25.37 

29.19 

18.91 

23.05 

29.19 

15 

324 

22.61 

28.85 

35.09 

20.11 

24.68 

29.25 

16 

218 

25.66 

33.31 

40.96 

22.76 

29.64 

36.52 

TABLE  IX 

Standards  of  Forearm  Strength  in  Kilos.  (Hastings) 


Girls 

Right  Hand  Left  Hand 


Age 

Obs. 

25%  # 

50% 

75%  # 

25%  # 

50% 

75%  # 

6 

183 

4.27 

5.17 

6.07 

4.13 

4.83 

5.53 

7 

514 

5.58 

7.48 

9.38 

4.80 

6.60 

8.40 

8 

521 

7.96 

9.26 

10.56 

7.60 

8.81 

10.01 

9 

534 

8.26 

10.06 

11.86 

7.98 

9.68 

11.38 

10 

517 

10.78 

12.98 

15.18 

9.73 

11.63 

13.33 

11 

522 

12.01 

14.11 

16.31 

12.52 

14.42 

16.32 

12 

526 

13.74 

16.04 

18.34 

12.53 

14.55 

17.95 

13 

534 

15.82 

18.52 

21.22 

15.06 

17.66 

20.26 

14 

534 

17.93 

21.73 

25.53 

16.31 

19.51 

22.71 

15 

459 

20.62 

24.44 

28.24 

19.64 

22.94 

26.24 

16 

355 

20.03 

24.13 

28.23 

18.95 

22.95 

26.95 

# Approximated. 


PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  344 


Pubescence 

As  a result  of  comparatively  recent  scientific  study  of  indi- 
vidual human  development,  especially  from  the  genetic  point 
of  view,  there  has  arisen  an  exceptional  interest  in  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  truly  remarkable  transformations,  both  physi- 
cal and  mental,  which  are  related  to  pubescence. 

Hall  (62,  p.  128)  briefly  summarizes  the  relation  of  educa- 
tion to  adolescence  as  follows : 

“ It  is  the  age  of  reconstruction,  when  new  determinants  come  to 
the  front  and  also  the  point  of  departure  for  new  lines  of  develop- 
ment. It  is  the  age  too  when,  if  ever,  previous  tendencies  to  ab- 
normality may  be  overcome  both  by  nature  and  by  treatment.  The 
law  of  nascent  periods  or  the  age  curve  of  growth  of  each  organ  or 
faculty,  is  one  of  the  first  desiderata  of  genetic  psychology;  how  to 
apply  it,  by  what  means  and  to  what  degree  to  stimulate  each  part  in 
its  stage  of  most  and  least  rapid  growth,  and  how  to  apportion  train- 
ing of  mind  and  body  between  developing  the  powers  that  excel  to  a 
degree  of  specialized  culture  that  corresponds  to  their  hereditary  pos- 
sibilities, or  educating  the  weakest  parts  and  powers  in  order  to  im- 
prove proportion  and  symmetry,  is  one  of  the  chief  problems  of  indi- 
vidual pedagogy.” 

The  original  and  significant  work  of  Crampton(44)  has  es- 
tablished and  to  a degree  popularized  a method  for  determin- 
ing from  external  signs  the  progress  of  this  notable  aspect  of 
Physiological  development,  and  has  compared  it  with  chrono- 
logical age. 

This  marked  transition  from  the  asexual  to  the  sexual  life 
occurs  at  various  periods  with  different  individuals,  usually 
between  12  and  15  years  of  age,  but  whenever  it  does  develop 
the  changes  are  profound.  Crampton(45,  p.  228)  thus  de- 
scribes it : “ In  the  short  space  of  6 months  the  child  becomes 
a man  or  woman,  and  the  process  is  fraught  with  the  dangers 
and  turmoil  of  a new  birth.  There  is  an  outburst  of  physical 
growth,  4 or  5 inches  are  added  to  the  height,  30  or  40  pounds 
to  the  weight,  and  the  strength  may  be  doubled  in  a short  space 
of  time.” 

The  relationship  of  this  physiological  change  to  age  of  boys, 
as  ascertained  by  Crampton  from  the  examination  of  3,835 
boys  in  New  York  City  high  schools  is  given  as  follows  (41, 
p.  232)  : 


345  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 

TABLE  X 

Percentage  of  Each  Age  in  Each  Physiological  Group 

Physiological  Age  Groups 


Age  in  Years  Immature  Maturing  Mature 


12.50  to  13. 00 69%  25%  6% 

13.00  to  13. 50 55%  26%  18% 

13.50  to  14. 00 41%  28%  31% 

14.00  to  14. 50 26%  28%  46% 

14 . 50  to  15 . 00 15%  24%  60% 

15.00  to  15. 50 9%  20%  70% 

15.50  to  16. 00 5%  10%  85% 

16.00  to  16. 50 2%  4%  93% 


Dr.  Wm.  Burdick,  Director  of  the  Public  Athletic  League 
of  Baltimore,  has  had  observations  made  on  girls,  using  as 
the  index  of  pubescence,  subcutaneous  fat,  axillary  hair,  ap- 
pearance of  breasts,  and  distinction  between  waist  and  hips, 
together  with  the  personal  statement  of  the  girls  as  to  the  time 
of  their  development. 

Part  of  the  results  of  his  studies  may  be  found  in  the  accom- 
panying table,  which  is  based  on  examinations  by  Dr.  Mary  A. 
Hodge,  of  more  than  3,000  girls.  The  figures  refer  to  the 
relationship  of  pubescence  to  age  and  include  the  ages  6 to  16 
to  coincide  with  the  general  ages  considered  in  this  treatment. 

Crampton(41,  pp.  232-4)  has  shown  the  marked  relation- 
ship of  the  pubertal  development  of  boys,  ages  12  to  16,  to 
height,  weight,  strength,  etc.,  and  has  established  the  signifi- 
cance of  this  physiological  functional  development. 

Educators  have  not  realized  to  the  full  the  importance  of 
physiological  age,  especially  in  its  bearing  upon  mental  and 
social  development.  This  lack  of  appreciation  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  during  the  dozen  years  since  Crampton  made 
his  masterly  and  widely  circulated  presentation  of  its  claims, 
there  are  comparatively  few  educational  institutions  into  which 
classification  on  this  basis  has  been  introduced. 

Among  the  difficulties  most  frequently  urged  against  the 
introduction  of  this  basis  of  classification,  may  be  noted  the 
following:  For  half  or  more  of  the  school  life  of  the  child, 
this  basis  of  grouping  has  no  significance,  since  it  does  not 
apply  until  signs  of  maturity  are  manifested. 

The  practical  problem  of  continuous  regrouping  during  more 
than  5 years,  required  for  the  entire  mass  of  students  to  pass 
from  the  immature  to  the  adolescent  stage,  seems  to  be  more 
than  the  average  principal  or  superintendent  is  willing  to  under- 
take. Still,  it  has  been  done.  Principal  Louis  Marks,  Public 
School  No.  54,  Manhattan,  New  York  City,  writes  under  date 
of  May  3,  1920: 


PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE  346 
TABLE  XI 

Maturity  of  Girls  Around  Baltimore 
Prepubescent  Pubescent  Adolescent 


Age 

Obs. 

% 

Obs. 

% 

Obs. 

% 

6 

14 

100.0 

6.5 

23 

100.0 

7 

33 

100.0 

7.5 

46 

100.0 

8 

60 

100.0 

8.5 

54 

100.0 

9 

79 

100.0 

9.5 

108 

99.0 

1 

TO 

10 

112 

100.0 

0 

0.0 

10.5 

127 

96.2 

4 

3.0 

"i 

0.7 

11 

114 

92.6 

9 

7.3 

0 

0.0 

11.5 

103 

78.6 

25 

19.0 

3 

2.2 

12 

90 

66.1 

39 

28.6 

7 

5.1 

12.5 

88 

57.5 

45 

29.4 

20 

13.0 

13 

61 

37.8 

61 

37.8 

39 

24.2 

13.5 

38 

23.7 

49 

30.6 

73 

45.6 

14 

24 

13.4 

51 

28.7 

103 

57.8 

14.5 

7 

4.7 

29 

19.7 

111 

75.5 

15 

4 

2.7 

22 

15.1 

119 

82.0 

15.5 

2 

1.3 

11 

7.1 

141 

91.4 

16 

2 

1.4 

6 

4.2 

133 

94.3 

16.5 

0 

0.0 

4 

3.0 

126 

96.9 

17 

1 

1.1 

98 

97.9 

17.5 

1 

1.1 

87 

98.8 

18 

1 

0.1 

658 

99.7 

Total 

1202 

356 

1719 

Grand  Total 

3277 

“ In  answer  to  your  request  of  April  28th,  I beg  to  state  that  we 
have  continued  the  system  of  classification  of  pupils  on  the  basis  of 
Dr.  Crampton’s  Physiological  Age  ever  since  it  was  introduced  some 
seven  years  ago.  We  have  every  reason  for  maintaining  this  grouping 
of  the  boys  in  the  upper  grades  of  our  school.  The  teachers  find  this 
arrangement  far  more  helpful  than  the  old  promiscuous  grouping.  The 
emotional  and  social  factors  are  the  predominant  reasons  for  con- 
tinuing this  plan.” 

In  physical  contests  such  as  athletics,  in  playgrounds,  pub- 
lic and  Sunday  School  athletic  leagues,  etc.,  a division  of  con- 
testants upon  the  physiological  age  basis,  has  been  found  to 
work  out  satisfactorily,  subdivisions  on  some  other  basis,  e.  g., 
weight  being  made  within  each  of  these  large  groups  when 
necessary. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  correlate  the  three  physiological 
groups  of  the  ages  12  to  16  with  the  25%,  50%  and  75%  values 
of  the  same  chronological  age.  Since  Crampton’s  tables  of 
height,  weight  and  grip  show  a distribution  within  each  age, 


347  PHYSICAL  STANDARDS  FOR  CHILDREN  OF  SCHOOL  AGE 

corresponding  in  a measure  with  the  percentile  values,  some 
are  satisfied  that  the  percentile  grouping  within  each  chrono- 
logical age  is  adequate.  Foster  (55,  p.  87),  speaking  of  classes 
grouped  on  a physiological  basis,  rather  supports  this  view 
with  regard  to  height. 

“ There  is  some  overlapping  of  height  in  the  different  grades  of 
pubescence,  but  the  relationship  is  so  close  between  height  and  pubes- 
cence that  it  might  seem  to  a person  who  had  a view  of  the  different 
classes  at  the  same  time  as  if  the  classification  had  been  made  accord- 
ing to  height.  All  the  smallest  boys  are  found  in  the  first  grades,  and 
all  the  largest  in  the  last  grades,  although  in  the  physical  examination 
not  the  slightest  attention  was  paid  to  the  boy’s  weight  when  the 
degree  of  pubescence  was  noted.” 

From  the  biological  point  of  view,  however,  the  tendency 
seems  to  be  to  regard  sexual  development  as  one,  and  in  many 
respects  the  most  important,  of  the  physical  manifestations 
in  man  of  the  great  fundamental  vital  principle  characterizing 
all  organisms ; the  common  factor  of  which  growth  of  all  the 
structures  and  maturing  of  all  the  functions  are  but  different 
aspects. 

Of  the  various  physical  sign  posts  considered,  pubescence 
seems  to  be  related  more  definitely  than  any  of  the  others,  to 
the  mental  and  social  aspects  of  the  pupil’s  development,  so 
has  additional  claim  to  consideration,  but  this  phase  is  outside 
the  scope  of  the  present  inquiry. 

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